1) Glasser's 5 student drivers and how to address them in Class 1.
The first student drive as recognised by Glasser, is "love, belonging and acceptance". This is especially important when children are as young as they are when they come into class 1, only just leaving the more imaginative, dreamy world of kindergarten. To address this need it is important to create a positive, soothing classroom atmosphere where the children will feel comfortable and welcomed. A sense of inclusion and belonging can be brought about with the use of group activities and games. This also gives the opportunity for social interaction, through which we learn how to belong. Furthermore, including children's interests in lesson content or the way it is presented, is another way of recognising and accepting who the children are.
Encouragement and positive beliefs about the children is vital for the students to build a positive view of themselves, including a sense of competency and achievement. Rather than always focusing on whether all the students have finished the task at hand, it is important to notice and encourage effort put into the work, regardless of the gap between the different students' work. By setting clear, achievable goals, the students can also foresee their success and this gives them the confidence to go ahead with the task. All of these contribute to a sense of "personal power, competency and achievement".
Survival, safety and security. This is a very basic need, that is only second to physiological ones as presented in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, and when not met, may result in students' refusal to participate in activities, or, on the other extreme, lash out and act out the cause or effect of their insecurities. These needs may not be met at home, in which case it is even more important to create a safe environment in the classroom - this may act as a retreat from circumstances at home. To do this, one must try to build a sense of connectedness and trust between all students and the teacher (this also relates back to having a sense of belonging), and caring and respecting students will, over time, allow them to go beyong their insecurities, and return the same care and respect. Any bullying or other issues that may arise, need to be ackowledged and addressed, and appropriate behaviour modelled and taught.
In class 1, children are still too young to make a lot of decisions for themselves. However, it is possible to incorporate choice through discussion, into how the classroom is run. Logical consequences may also be used rather than punishment. This gives the opportunity for responsible behaviour to be chosen over disruptive behaviour with its ensuing consequences. This means the students have a relative amount of freedom, independence and autonomy. This can also be addressed by having some flexibility in how tasks are carried out, and using creative activities.
In later years the need for freedom and independence is a lot more predominant, and the use of class discussions about behaviour, ideas and issues that matter to the students are a great tool for this. It can also be used in class 1 in a simpler, more teacher-directed form, where the students are asked if a certain behaviour works or not.
Fun and learning. At such a young age, children are very much focused on playing and having fun, and incorporating this is a wonderful tool to get the children engaged. Especially at Steiner schools, lessons are taught predominantly through the use of story-telling, singing, playing games, and representing the lesson's content through a creative activity like drawing, painting etc. Content is also put to practical use by building objects. This is not only a more interactive and fun way to learn, but also caters for a wider variety of intelligences as defined by Gardner.
2) Student motivation
Before attempting to plan a lesson, it is important to look at where the students are at the time - in their knowledge, understanding, emotional wellbeing and development, and in terms of interests. It is then possible to create a 'zone of proximal development' (Vygotsky) and build on their current knowledge. Students' interest is aroused by incorporating their general interests (in music, art etc) into the lesson content, thereby increasing their level of motivation.
Students' attention is best grabbed from the very start of the lesson. Giving clear, achievable goals and tasks at the start of the lesson, means students may foresee their success and therefore approach the tasks at hand with confidence. Curiosity is also a great enticer; this can be in the form of a dilemna, a mystery or riddle to be solved, or simply a physical task that requires creative thinking.
Having flexibility in how research is done and presented allows students to have more creative input, and addresses multiple intelligences, as described by Gardner. This can be left completely open, or it may help students to offer them a few possibilities, covering the 3 different groups of intelligences: personal/emotional, visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic (this includes music)[Gardner].
Allowing room for discussions within the lesson also means students can motivate and excite each other through the sharing of ideas or ways of doing the research etc. This gives them the opportunity to have some social time/interaction in the lesson which addresses Vygotsky's point that humans are mainly social beings and that they learn mostly through their social interactions. This way student drivers - as described by Glasser - for "love, acceptance, belonging" and "freedom and autonomy" are also met.
Giving regular encouragement and feedback is also important in maintaining students' motivation and building their self-esteem to follow through with tasks and keep on persisting. Without this, students may easily give up unless they already have a strong inner drive and/or self-esteem.
Finally, but not least, it is important to look at the general class environment. By making this a positive environment, ensuring students may feel safe and secure, and meeting all the students' drivers (Glasser), one may ensure students are receptive to new knowledge and learning.
The academic world has often become so serious, it is easy to forget one vital part of the last drive: fun and learning. Keeping that in mind, it is possible to have a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom, still having the mutual trust and respect between teacher and students, and learn/teach while having fun!
3) Restorative justice model used with bullying.
The aim of restorative justice is to resolve issues by bringing situations/relationships back to their original or even an improved state, through the involvement of both the victim and the perpetrator. It engages both parties and their affected communities in finding solutions that promote repair, reconciliation and the rebuilding of relationships. This method is about bringing the incident into a more human, empathetic context, and finding constructive resolutions, rather than working from a punitive approach.
This system was first designed to avoid retaliatory violence for wrongdoing, but is nowadays further used to promote a sense of mutual responsibility throughout communities.
In a classroom situation where bullying is occuring, I would first talk to the victimised student, asking them how they feel in the situation and details of what has occured, offering them my support and suggesting this method to deal with it. I would then consult fellow teachers who know the group of students quite well, about which students to include in a discussion about the situation. The discussion would include the perpetrators, their friends, friends of the victim and peers who know about the situation and may have witnessed it without intervening (and thereby allowing it to happen). This discussion is to be led with a 'no blame' approach, instead looking at how the victim might feel (asking the perpetrators how their actions might affect the victim), and looking at ways of resolving/improving the situation. If the victim has a particular drawing that reflects how they feel about the situation, this may be shown and discussed in this group discussion. After looking at how everyone can help and support the victim (and this way everyone takes some responsibility towards the situation) and agreeing to follow this through, a further meeting will be scheduled to assess the progress on the situation. Students would also be met individually to discuss the progress on their agreement and the situation in general. By getting other students to empathise for the victim, the perpetrators may genuinely regret their behaviour, and apologising to the victim - without making too big a deal of it and embarrassing the perpetrator - is a way for the victim's feelings to be acknowledged, as well as the inappropriateness of the behaviour.
Though in some cases it might also be important to sit down with both the offender(s) and victim(s) at the same time, talking with the victim alone at first, gives them the opportunity to speak up without fear of further retaliation/bullying from the offender.
Without pointing the finger at particular instances, general bullying behaviour needs to be addressed in class discussions if there is repeated offence, reminding everyone of the appropriate behaviour and the positive actions that help to avoid feelings of exclusion etc. Finishing the discussion with a focus on the positive helps students remember this last note and behave accordingly.
Having general awareness throughout the school by discussing these incidents with colleagues, also helps to get onto bullying faster and avoid it as much as possible.
This is how it would be applied within a school setting where a student is being bullied:
The victim would be met, providing support, explaining the proposed process and collecting information on the bullying or harassment. Other teachers who know the peer group would be consulted with to establish a group of perpetrators, supporters, friends of the victimised person and peers who have not attempted to prevent the bullying. The group would then attend a meeting (not attended by the victim), to discuss the bullying incidents, developping shared responsibility without blaming, and looking for ways to resolve the issue. Shared action is encouraged and further meetings appointed to discuss the progress.
4) My own beliefs about education and classroom management
I believe in nourishing the child as a whole - i.e. not just the physical or thinking realm, but every aspect of their being including their emotional and spiritual self. Every child deserves respect, nurturing and the very best in education and Life.
Relationships/social interactions, ways of thinking, assessing, adaptability and problem-solving are all issues that will come up time and time again throughout anyone's life and these areas need to be addressed within education, rather than random facts and figures. In other words the focus should be on tools for Life, rather than filling the mind with facts.
Though the thought may seem daunting at times, children's upbringing is a foundation for, and will have an effect on them throughout their lives; and so, it is vital - especially in their younger years, where they soak everything up like a sponge - to give them the safe, nurturing upbringing they need to flourish. For this, meeting Glasser's drivers is a must.
In an ideal world every child would be safe and loved on all (possible/necessary?) levels, so they may reach their full potential and follow their dreams as adults. Of course it can be argued that hardship builds strength and makes us who we are, and sometimes the hardships are the foundations of positive change and revolutionary work. Yet, that said, they should definitely not be applied on purpose. As discussed by various philosophers (Vygotsky, Bloom etc), challenges are part of student motivation for learning and allowing them to make the learning their own by coming to their own conclusions; however these challenges should be offered within a safe and 'warm' environment. Evidently we do not live in an ideal world, and parents may not be able to meet their children's needs, but we can still aim for this ideal, and thereby get closer to its reality as much as possible.
As far as discipline and classroom management is concerned, it is easy to fall back into habits that we grew up with ourselves - often a more rigid and authoritarian attitude. However, I aim to use more creative ways to discipline, making the use of games, songs and riddles to portray to children appropriate behaviour and gain their attention. This is especially effective with younger children. Within Steiner education for the under 7's, a non-blaming approach to inappropriate behaviour is taken by characterising the negative habit; for example 'kicker', 'pusher' or 'shover' needs to be washed off the children's hands, and a drink of water would wash away swearwords... This approach means the habit can more easily let go off and avoids a feeling of guilt or shame within the child. At an older age, children are generally more aware of their actions and consequences thereof, and accordingly the focus should be shifted to their choices and decision-making. Regardless of the approach, it is important to relate to the students in a calm matter as much as possible. There are always extreme behaviours, especially repetitive ones, that require stronger actions, yet generally getting angry and yelling at a child will only reduce them to fear. As much as this can occasionaly teach them the inappropriateness of their behaviour, its repetitive use will create anxiety and low self-esteem within the student(s). As Dreikurs pointed out, this may also create in the student the desire to seek revenge.
As a general rule I would like to create a relationship of trust with students, where they feel comfortable discussing any arising issues and where I can approach them about disciplinary matters without any focus on hierarchy or authority. Relationships built on understanding each other and aiming to work together.
Friday, June 15, 2007
Exam 2 - Introduction to Teaching Skills
1)
As Vygotsky observed, children learn and build on their knowledge through social interactions. These interactions model their world view. Hence the teacher's relationship with his/her students is important not only in imparting information and knowledge, but also in developing healthy attitudes, building self-esteem and healthy relationships with peers. Glasser also recognises 'safety, security, survival' as one of 5 main drives in children's behaviour - for no child can function properly if they feel threatened or insecure. It is therefore very important to create a positive, healthy classroom climate, in which the students feel cared for and secure - and this again relates back to positive relationships between the students and with their teacher.
Through these relationships, children may also learn Emotional Intelligence, that is the ability to step back from their feeling life and manage it through looking at situations from a more objective angle.
Tapping into where children are at in their lives and development (hear, mind and spirit), helps to create the Zone of proximal development as described by Vygotsky. This looks at past and present knowledge/experiences that can be built on for the next stage of learning. It is important to have an understanding of the children's current lives so these next steps may be planned, as well as keeping a certain amount of sensitivity to their emotional wellbeing - i.e. if the students are particularly vulnerable at times of personal crisis/family circumstances, or simply within their stage of development.
Wholistic approach, Steiner: looks at every aspect of the child, therefore also heart and soul.
2)
Vygotsky pointed out that children/students learn more through guided learning, then they would by themselves, or by simply being 'told' knowledge. It is through experiencing and coming to their own conclusions/deductions, that knowledge is truly their own. In that sense, teachers are simply guides to point out the next idea or object that will help them on their path of discovery, and to attain a higher level of understanding within a subject area.
This guidance is sometimes best given in the form of a question, i.e. "would your theory still work under these circumstances", thereby offering a new scenario in which the theory might not work, leading the student to further questioning and researching a better, more appropriate solution.
Bloom's Taxonomy defines six different levels of thinking. The most basic of these simply requires the students to remember facts, while the higher levels require a much deeper understanding so the information may be assessed, analysed and synthesized, in order to create new ideas and hypotheses. All the different levels of thinking build upon one another as demonstrated in the following pyramid:
Extensive tables have been written up with lists of questions that would lead to the various levels of thinking - whether through tasks such sorting, describing etc, or thinking qualities such as analysing. Critical thinking is asking the students to assess and thereby question everything and make the information their own through the different levels of thinking. How can these be taught if not through questions?!
Throughout the various stages of thinking, it is important that encouragement is given to the students, so as to keep their motivation alive. For if the student is told at every step that s/he does not have the right answer, they will quickly lose their enthusiasm for their search and might start feeling like a failure. As described both by Dreikurs and Glasser, children long to belong, i.e. to be recognised, acknowledged and accepted. This support needs to be shown throughout the students' work.
It is also important that work is presented in small, achievable steps. This way students can see themselves succeed and this gives them the momentum to get involved in the task. If the task is too big it may simply seem too overwhelming, and it is important to remember this same principle when leading students' work through questions.
Student trust and confidence in seeking/answering answers: by staying positive and giving encouragement
3)
When it comes to our way of communicating with students, it is important to remember the students' drives, as pointed out by Glasser:
By approaching students with love, care and respect, and treating them as an equal, we are setting up a space where they may feel like they belong, are loved and valued, and have the opportunity to speak up and have their say. This last point is especially important in satisfying the needs of power and freedom. This can be done through having class discussions where ideas can be shared, even in relation to appropriate behaviour in the classroom.
Fun and learning is to be looked at within lesson content and the way it is presented. Yet again, having a light-hearted approach and being able to have fun with the students (as long as the work still gets done!), contributes and is expressed through our communication.
4)
By starting with the softest method of classroom management - non-directive intervention -, the teacher shows faith in the children knowing how to behave - and thereby encourages it - and the students are given the opportunity to behave appropriately. In that time, by staying positive and encouraging, disruptive students are given the opportunity to revert back to appropriate behaviour. If the disruptive behaviour persists, it then requires looking at the child in pain and at the drives behind the disruptive behaviour.
Generally it is ideal to stay within the middle area: 50/50, teacher control/student autonomy. Skinner's approach of assertive discipline is nowadays considered too dry, and a constantly authoritarian approach can create resentment within the students, who may end up seeking revenge.
Positive classroom is best approached with a relaxed, friendly nature and by relating with students as worthy individuals, rather than coming from a hierarchical or authoritative approach. That certainly does not mean that work does not need to be done, clear boundaries can be expressed and put into place. However, by meeting the students with trust, respect, care and understanding, we favour the same qualities in return and lay the foundation for healthy, trusting relationships. This usually allows the teacher to stay within the friendlier leadership models of discipline. Without this respect between the students and teacher, students will not value the teacher or lesson as much, and will feel more inclined to being disruptive.
5) Assessment
Norm - referenced assessment works by comparing the students' work to each other. This is often associated with the bell shaped, where there is a set percentage of students that are to fit in every category: fail, pass, credit, distinction and high distinction. This means that even when all the students in the class have presented excellent work, some of them will have to fail to fit this criteria. Similarly, if all students did poorly, some of them will still get excellent grades. While this ensures that there is always a certain amount of success, it does not seem to clearly reflect the quality of work handed in and is also not fair in the case of the whole class presenting excellent work.
Criterion - referenced assessment. This is where students' work is against a set of predetermined criteria, therefore giving a clearer, fairer idea of the students' work. In that case, when all students have presented good work, all will also get good marks. The only case where this may not clearly reflect students work, is where students are assessed in a similar fashion across different institutions/universities where the teaching may have been different. Some classes may have been taught very thoroughly, while others may still be lacking information by the time exams come around. In that case, comparing students' work from both classes will not clearly reflect the students' effort in studying and learning, but rather, it will be a reflection of what they have been taught and what they have been able to do with that information - i.e. processing it and taking it to new levels.
As Vygotsky observed, children learn and build on their knowledge through social interactions. These interactions model their world view. Hence the teacher's relationship with his/her students is important not only in imparting information and knowledge, but also in developing healthy attitudes, building self-esteem and healthy relationships with peers. Glasser also recognises 'safety, security, survival' as one of 5 main drives in children's behaviour - for no child can function properly if they feel threatened or insecure. It is therefore very important to create a positive, healthy classroom climate, in which the students feel cared for and secure - and this again relates back to positive relationships between the students and with their teacher.
Through these relationships, children may also learn Emotional Intelligence, that is the ability to step back from their feeling life and manage it through looking at situations from a more objective angle.
Tapping into where children are at in their lives and development (hear, mind and spirit), helps to create the Zone of proximal development as described by Vygotsky. This looks at past and present knowledge/experiences that can be built on for the next stage of learning. It is important to have an understanding of the children's current lives so these next steps may be planned, as well as keeping a certain amount of sensitivity to their emotional wellbeing - i.e. if the students are particularly vulnerable at times of personal crisis/family circumstances, or simply within their stage of development.
Wholistic approach, Steiner: looks at every aspect of the child, therefore also heart and soul.
2)
Vygotsky pointed out that children/students learn more through guided learning, then they would by themselves, or by simply being 'told' knowledge. It is through experiencing and coming to their own conclusions/deductions, that knowledge is truly their own. In that sense, teachers are simply guides to point out the next idea or object that will help them on their path of discovery, and to attain a higher level of understanding within a subject area.
This guidance is sometimes best given in the form of a question, i.e. "would your theory still work under these circumstances", thereby offering a new scenario in which the theory might not work, leading the student to further questioning and researching a better, more appropriate solution.
Bloom's Taxonomy defines six different levels of thinking. The most basic of these simply requires the students to remember facts, while the higher levels require a much deeper understanding so the information may be assessed, analysed and synthesized, in order to create new ideas and hypotheses. All the different levels of thinking build upon one another as demonstrated in the following pyramid:
Extensive tables have been written up with lists of questions that would lead to the various levels of thinking - whether through tasks such sorting, describing etc, or thinking qualities such as analysing. Critical thinking is asking the students to assess and thereby question everything and make the information their own through the different levels of thinking. How can these be taught if not through questions?!
Throughout the various stages of thinking, it is important that encouragement is given to the students, so as to keep their motivation alive. For if the student is told at every step that s/he does not have the right answer, they will quickly lose their enthusiasm for their search and might start feeling like a failure. As described both by Dreikurs and Glasser, children long to belong, i.e. to be recognised, acknowledged and accepted. This support needs to be shown throughout the students' work.
It is also important that work is presented in small, achievable steps. This way students can see themselves succeed and this gives them the momentum to get involved in the task. If the task is too big it may simply seem too overwhelming, and it is important to remember this same principle when leading students' work through questions.
Student trust and confidence in seeking/answering answers: by staying positive and giving encouragement
3)
When it comes to our way of communicating with students, it is important to remember the students' drives, as pointed out by Glasser:
- to belong
- to be loved and valued
- to have power
- to have freedom
- to have fun and learning
By approaching students with love, care and respect, and treating them as an equal, we are setting up a space where they may feel like they belong, are loved and valued, and have the opportunity to speak up and have their say. This last point is especially important in satisfying the needs of power and freedom. This can be done through having class discussions where ideas can be shared, even in relation to appropriate behaviour in the classroom.
Fun and learning is to be looked at within lesson content and the way it is presented. Yet again, having a light-hearted approach and being able to have fun with the students (as long as the work still gets done!), contributes and is expressed through our communication.
4)
By starting with the softest method of classroom management - non-directive intervention -, the teacher shows faith in the children knowing how to behave - and thereby encourages it - and the students are given the opportunity to behave appropriately. In that time, by staying positive and encouraging, disruptive students are given the opportunity to revert back to appropriate behaviour. If the disruptive behaviour persists, it then requires looking at the child in pain and at the drives behind the disruptive behaviour.
Generally it is ideal to stay within the middle area: 50/50, teacher control/student autonomy. Skinner's approach of assertive discipline is nowadays considered too dry, and a constantly authoritarian approach can create resentment within the students, who may end up seeking revenge.
Positive classroom is best approached with a relaxed, friendly nature and by relating with students as worthy individuals, rather than coming from a hierarchical or authoritative approach. That certainly does not mean that work does not need to be done, clear boundaries can be expressed and put into place. However, by meeting the students with trust, respect, care and understanding, we favour the same qualities in return and lay the foundation for healthy, trusting relationships. This usually allows the teacher to stay within the friendlier leadership models of discipline. Without this respect between the students and teacher, students will not value the teacher or lesson as much, and will feel more inclined to being disruptive.
5) Assessment
Norm - referenced assessment works by comparing the students' work to each other. This is often associated with the bell shaped, where there is a set percentage of students that are to fit in every category: fail, pass, credit, distinction and high distinction. This means that even when all the students in the class have presented excellent work, some of them will have to fail to fit this criteria. Similarly, if all students did poorly, some of them will still get excellent grades. While this ensures that there is always a certain amount of success, it does not seem to clearly reflect the quality of work handed in and is also not fair in the case of the whole class presenting excellent work.
Criterion - referenced assessment. This is where students' work is against a set of predetermined criteria, therefore giving a clearer, fairer idea of the students' work. In that case, when all students have presented good work, all will also get good marks. The only case where this may not clearly reflect students work, is where students are assessed in a similar fashion across different institutions/universities where the teaching may have been different. Some classes may have been taught very thoroughly, while others may still be lacking information by the time exams come around. In that case, comparing students' work from both classes will not clearly reflect the students' effort in studying and learning, but rather, it will be a reflection of what they have been taught and what they have been able to do with that information - i.e. processing it and taking it to new levels.
Thursday, June 14, 2007
Exam 1 - Introduction to Teaching and the Curriculum
A)
Question 1: 5 habits of mind as described by Arthur Costa
Persistence: the ability to stick to a task until it is completed. This involves recognising when
an idea or theory does not work, and being able to step back and start anew with a different theory. Often systematic methods of analyzing a problem are used, which include knowing how to begin, knowing what steps must be performed, and what data needs to be generated or collected. The ability to sustain a problem solving process over time, means the person is comfortable with ambiguous situations.
Managing impulsitivity: thinking before they act, intentionally forming a vision of a product, plan of action, goal or a destination before it is begun. striving to clarify and understand directions, developing a strategy for approaching a problem and withholding immediate value judgments about an idea before fully understanding it. Reflective individuals consider alternatives and consequences of several possible directions prior to taking action. They decrease their need for trial and error by gathering information, taking time to reflect on an answer before giving it, making sure they understand directions, and listening to alternative points of view.
Listening To Others—With Understanding and Empathy: Some psychologists believe that the ability to listen to another person, to empathize with, and to understand their point of view is one of the highest forms of intelligent behavior. Being able to paraphrase another person's ideas, detecting indicators of their feelings or emotional states in their oral and body language (empathy), accurately expressing another person's concepts, emotions and problems— are all indications of listening behavior (Piaget called it "overcoming ego-centrism"). They are able to see through the diverse perspectives of others. They gently attend to another person demonstrating their understanding of and empathy for an idea or feeling by paraphrasing it accurately, building upon it, clarifying it, or giving an example of it.
Thinking Flexibly: Flexible people are the ones with the most control. They have the capacity to change their mind as they receive additional data. They engage in multiple and simultaneous outcomes and activities, draw upon a repertoire of problem solving strategies and can practice style flexibility, knowing when it is appropriate to be broad and global in their thinking and when a situation requires detailed precision. They create and seek novel approaches and have a well-developed sense of humor. They envision a range of consequences and consider alternative points of view.
Thinking About our Thinking (Metacognition): this is our ability to know what we know and what we don't know, the ability to plan a strategy for producing what information is needed, to be conscious of our own steps and strategies during the act of problem solving, and to reflect on and evaluate the productiveness of our own thinking. While "inner language," thought to be a prerequisite, begins in most children around age five, metacognition is a key attribute of formal thought flowering about age eleven. the major components of metacognition are developing a plan of action, maintaining that plan in mind over a period of time, then reflecting back on and evaluating the plan upon its completion. Planning a strategy before embarking on a course of action assists us in keeping track of the steps in the sequence of planned behavior at the conscious awareness level for the duration of the activity. It facilitates making temporal and comparative judgments, assessing the readiness for more or different activities, and monitoring our interpretations, perceptions, decisions and behaviors. An example of this would be what superior teachers do daily: developing a teaching strategy for a lesson, keeping that strategy in mind throughout the instruction, then reflecting back upon the strategy to evaluate its effectiveness in producing the desired student outcomes.
(ref: www.habits-of-mind.net/whatare.htm)
Question 2: Gardner
Musical intelligence relates to "skill in performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence". People who strongly relate through music, may find it easy to learn by writing the material into a song, hearing music from the particular era (i.e. for history), perhaps even learn maths through looking at musical intervals?! Music, as a general rule has a great influence on people's mood. It can be a great motivator to keep going when on a long walk, and even playing soft music in the background can bring a more relaxed atmosphere and make students more receptive to learning - this is of course age and subject dependent. This musical intelligence can also be incorporated in a theatrical context, i.e. by allowing students to present research through a musical/theatrical performance.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems - as with maths, looking at proportions etc. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements (Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related). This could even involve imagination to relate bodily movements to various other animals or objects' shapes etc.
Question 3: Piaget
Piaget's main observation was that children are different to adults in the way they learn, think and act - rather than being a smaller, yet similar version of adults.
He also saw that children construct their own knowledge through their interaction with the world, i.e. through their own actions and the effect of these on the world.
Piaget recognised 4 different stages of cognitive development:
Question 4: Vygotsky
Similar to Piaget, Vygotsky thought children learn through their social interactions. More than that though, he realised that greater learning was achieved through adult guidance and/or peer collaboration; that is adults pointing out certain objects or ideas throughout the children's development, so that they may themselves come to their own conclusions/realisations. It is simply drawing attention to an element that will guide them to a new level of thinking. Vygotsky pointed out that "adults mediate the world for children and make it possible for them to get access to it".
He emphasised that "skills developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
The "Zone of Proximal Development" relates to the limited time span in which learning can occur, as well as the level of understanding and development that the students/children are at. In a sense children need to be "warmed" to what they're about to learn, by reminding them of what they have learnt so far and connecting it to the new. This natural progression helps them make sense of it.
B)
Question 1: according to John Hattie, "expert" teachers:
"combine new subject matter content knowledge with prior knowledge" and can relate "to other subjects in the curriculum". Lessons are catered "according to their students' needs and their own goals". This relates back to Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development" and means the teacher clearly takes into account where the students are at in terms of knowledge, needs and general understanding of Life ("experts needed to know the ability, experience and background of students they were to teach").
There also seems to be a certain flexibility and adaptability among expert teachers: they "can anticipate, plan and improvise as required by the students" and "are more adept at monitoring student problems and assessing their level of understanding and progress". They can "detect when students lose interest and are not understanding". This means the teacher will not get stuck in delivering a lesson the way s/he planned it, if it is clearly not working as well as expected or hoped for. Knowing the students well also means the signs of disinterest or confusion/misunderstanding are easier to read.
This point is also touched on by Hattie: "expert teachers have high respect for students [...], as learners and people, and demonstrate care and commitment for them". This care for students is important in creating a positive classroom climate and modelling positive relationships (Vygotsky - the importance of social interaction), and thereby addresses Glasser's drive of being safe & secure, as well as being loved and accepted. This in turn means students feel comfortable enough to ask questions; this is a vital sign of students' interest & motivation and helps deepen students' learning. This is addressed several times throughout Hattie's description of expert teachers: they "engage students in learning", are "skillful at keeping the lesson on track and accomplishing their objectives, while allowing students' questions and comments as springboards for discussions". "Student questioning is high".
Through this interaction with the students, teachers are also giving constant feedback. This helps the students to further their learning whilst feeling supported, encouraged and understood (this goes back to the positive classroom climate and to being able to "detect when students lose interest and are not understanding").
Expert teachers are "passionate about teaching and learning. They show more emotionality about their successes and failures in their work". And perhaps it is this passion which gives them the care for and belief in their students and means they aim higher. Hattie explains that "they aim for more than achievement goals and motivate their students to master rather than perform." Through this they "enhance students' self-concept and self-efficacy about learning, they set appropriate challenging tasks" (thereby keeping the students motivated) and "aim for both surface and deep outcomes". This seems to be achieved through a "balance between content-centred and student-centred instruction". "Students engage in challenging tasks to a great extent of the time" whereas usually the majority of classroom time is teacher-focused, with students only listening to what is being said. The high degree of student questioning clearly shows the teacher's confidence within the subject area - to be able to answer those questions - and perhaps also a more humane approach in that it is OK to not always know the answers, even as a teacher. Also, the fact that expert teachers seem to be "more adept at developing hypotheses about learning difficulties or instructional strategies", shows they are well informed about educational issues & students' learning abilities, as well as in their subject area.
It seems to me that the most important qualities of the expert teachers are their passion (about teaching and learning) and their caring, humane approach to students. These are the basic drives that lead to all the other qualities identified by John Hattie, and to expert teachers having "positive influences on students' achievement".
Question 2: Individual differences in classroom
The first step in catering for individual differences within the classroom, is by using a variety of ways to teach. This is to address multiple intelligences as explained by Howard Gardner, and therefore different ways of learning, by using visual, musical, linguistic etc. materials, and giving choice in the way research/projects are investigated and presented. Allowing time for class discussions where opinions may be expressed, issues discussed and hopefully resolved together, is also a way of giving everyone the opportunity to be proactive in the ongoings of the classroom, as well as to express their individuality and differences.
Teaching Emotional Intelligence is also a way of recognizing and addressing differences, teaching healthy relationship models, whilst still allowing students to stay on track with their work.
C)
Question 1: B.O.S.
On the Board of Studies website, the following are available for French taught in primary school:
Though not specifically for french, foundation statements are also available on the primary school page: k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/, see the "Primary Curriculum Foundation Statements" heading (first one, in orange). This information is needed when writing programs.
The "Official Notices" & "Special Needs Education" sections on the Home page of the Board of Studies website, are also good areas to look at, especially the first for any up-to-date information on syllabus changes.
Question 2: Lesson Planning
The importance of planning: well, there's nothing quite like entering a classroom not knowing what to teach!! It is important to know what the outcomes for the lesson are (to be looked up on the Board of Studies website), as well as how the content is going to be presented to the students. This needs to be done in a way that will motivate the students to engage in the lesson. For without student motivation, they will easily get distracted and this could be a recipe for disaster. By stating the outcomes clearly to the students, they will also know what is expected of them, giving them clearer direction as to what to do. By incorporating group activities, the students' drive for social interaction is acknowledged (Vygotsky) and using different media facilitates learning for different intelligences (Gardner).
Although it can be refreshing to be spontaneous within a lesson, it is important - as a general rule - to look at all aspects of learning and teaching psychologies.
What factors to consider in prior learning and background: It is important to look at the students' current understanding to be able to build on that knowledge, guiding them to the next step of understanding. This is called the "zone of proximal development" and is best put into practise by looking at the students' general interests. It is through these that it will be possible to motivate and engage students in the learning process.
Different strategies for gaining students' attention: This is, again, done by including students' interest in the way a lesson is presented. Bringing fun into the lesson is always an extra motivator for the students to participate, and by having some sort of an intrigue or a dilemma to be solved, the students' may become curious, arousing their desire to solve the mystery. Having a foundation of trust and respect with the students is also vital for students' to respond to the set tasks, as they will not want to engage with someone they dislike or mistrust.
Different assignment strategies that enable you to know/measure what students have learnt: By having a variety of assessment tasks and interactions and discussions within the classroom, it is possible to observe how much the information/task were learnt and integrated. This gives them the opportunity to use/show the learnt outcomes in a variety of activities, and to still ask questions if anything is misunderstood or unclear.
Question 1: 5 habits of mind as described by Arthur Costa
Persistence: the ability to stick to a task until it is completed. This involves recognising when
an idea or theory does not work, and being able to step back and start anew with a different theory. Often systematic methods of analyzing a problem are used, which include knowing how to begin, knowing what steps must be performed, and what data needs to be generated or collected. The ability to sustain a problem solving process over time, means the person is comfortable with ambiguous situations.
Managing impulsitivity: thinking before they act, intentionally forming a vision of a product, plan of action, goal or a destination before it is begun. striving to clarify and understand directions, developing a strategy for approaching a problem and withholding immediate value judgments about an idea before fully understanding it. Reflective individuals consider alternatives and consequences of several possible directions prior to taking action. They decrease their need for trial and error by gathering information, taking time to reflect on an answer before giving it, making sure they understand directions, and listening to alternative points of view.
Listening To Others—With Understanding and Empathy: Some psychologists believe that the ability to listen to another person, to empathize with, and to understand their point of view is one of the highest forms of intelligent behavior. Being able to paraphrase another person's ideas, detecting indicators of their feelings or emotional states in their oral and body language (empathy), accurately expressing another person's concepts, emotions and problems— are all indications of listening behavior (Piaget called it "overcoming ego-centrism"). They are able to see through the diverse perspectives of others. They gently attend to another person demonstrating their understanding of and empathy for an idea or feeling by paraphrasing it accurately, building upon it, clarifying it, or giving an example of it.
Thinking Flexibly: Flexible people are the ones with the most control. They have the capacity to change their mind as they receive additional data. They engage in multiple and simultaneous outcomes and activities, draw upon a repertoire of problem solving strategies and can practice style flexibility, knowing when it is appropriate to be broad and global in their thinking and when a situation requires detailed precision. They create and seek novel approaches and have a well-developed sense of humor. They envision a range of consequences and consider alternative points of view.
Thinking About our Thinking (Metacognition): this is our ability to know what we know and what we don't know, the ability to plan a strategy for producing what information is needed, to be conscious of our own steps and strategies during the act of problem solving, and to reflect on and evaluate the productiveness of our own thinking. While "inner language," thought to be a prerequisite, begins in most children around age five, metacognition is a key attribute of formal thought flowering about age eleven. the major components of metacognition are developing a plan of action, maintaining that plan in mind over a period of time, then reflecting back on and evaluating the plan upon its completion. Planning a strategy before embarking on a course of action assists us in keeping track of the steps in the sequence of planned behavior at the conscious awareness level for the duration of the activity. It facilitates making temporal and comparative judgments, assessing the readiness for more or different activities, and monitoring our interpretations, perceptions, decisions and behaviors. An example of this would be what superior teachers do daily: developing a teaching strategy for a lesson, keeping that strategy in mind throughout the instruction, then reflecting back upon the strategy to evaluate its effectiveness in producing the desired student outcomes.
(ref: www.habits-of-mind.net/whatare.htm)
Question 2: Gardner
Musical intelligence relates to "skill in performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence". People who strongly relate through music, may find it easy to learn by writing the material into a song, hearing music from the particular era (i.e. for history), perhaps even learn maths through looking at musical intervals?! Music, as a general rule has a great influence on people's mood. It can be a great motivator to keep going when on a long walk, and even playing soft music in the background can bring a more relaxed atmosphere and make students more receptive to learning - this is of course age and subject dependent. This musical intelligence can also be incorporated in a theatrical context, i.e. by allowing students to present research through a musical/theatrical performance.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems - as with maths, looking at proportions etc. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements (Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related). This could even involve imagination to relate bodily movements to various other animals or objects' shapes etc.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Using a variety of objects and/or people in the classroom to give an idea of distances or relative sizes is one way of incorporating this intelligence, as is using the human body as a guideline to drawing certain shapes - one example of this is using the extremities of the body when stretched out: hands, feet and head, to explain how to draw a 5-pointed star. This last example also relates back to bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, in entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking and is one of the more commonly used intelligences in the educational system.
Question 3: Piaget
Piaget's main observation was that children are different to adults in the way they learn, think and act - rather than being a smaller, yet similar version of adults.
He also saw that children construct their own knowledge through their interaction with the world, i.e. through their own actions and the effect of these on the world.
Piaget recognised 4 different stages of cognitive development:
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) - The mental structures are mainly concerned with the mastery of concrete objects, how to hold them etc.
- Preoperational (2 years to 7 years) - The mastery of symbols takes place - memory and imagination are developed, the use of language matures. Thinking remains mainly centered around the self and its experiences.
- Concrete operational (7 years to 11 years) - Children learn mastery of classes, relations, and numbers and how to reason. Connections between symbols and what they represent are made and operational thinking (mental actions that are reversable) develops.
- Formal operational (abstract thinking) (11 years and up) - The last stage deals with the mastery of thought: the use of symbols related to abstract concepts.
Question 4: Vygotsky
Similar to Piaget, Vygotsky thought children learn through their social interactions. More than that though, he realised that greater learning was achieved through adult guidance and/or peer collaboration; that is adults pointing out certain objects or ideas throughout the children's development, so that they may themselves come to their own conclusions/realisations. It is simply drawing attention to an element that will guide them to a new level of thinking. Vygotsky pointed out that "adults mediate the world for children and make it possible for them to get access to it".
He emphasised that "skills developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
The "Zone of Proximal Development" relates to the limited time span in which learning can occur, as well as the level of understanding and development that the students/children are at. In a sense children need to be "warmed" to what they're about to learn, by reminding them of what they have learnt so far and connecting it to the new. This natural progression helps them make sense of it.
B)
Question 1: according to John Hattie, "expert" teachers:
"combine new subject matter content knowledge with prior knowledge" and can relate "to other subjects in the curriculum". Lessons are catered "according to their students' needs and their own goals". This relates back to Vygotsky's "Zone of Proximal Development" and means the teacher clearly takes into account where the students are at in terms of knowledge, needs and general understanding of Life ("experts needed to know the ability, experience and background of students they were to teach").
There also seems to be a certain flexibility and adaptability among expert teachers: they "can anticipate, plan and improvise as required by the students" and "are more adept at monitoring student problems and assessing their level of understanding and progress". They can "detect when students lose interest and are not understanding". This means the teacher will not get stuck in delivering a lesson the way s/he planned it, if it is clearly not working as well as expected or hoped for. Knowing the students well also means the signs of disinterest or confusion/misunderstanding are easier to read.
This point is also touched on by Hattie: "expert teachers have high respect for students [...], as learners and people, and demonstrate care and commitment for them". This care for students is important in creating a positive classroom climate and modelling positive relationships (Vygotsky - the importance of social interaction), and thereby addresses Glasser's drive of being safe & secure, as well as being loved and accepted. This in turn means students feel comfortable enough to ask questions; this is a vital sign of students' interest & motivation and helps deepen students' learning. This is addressed several times throughout Hattie's description of expert teachers: they "engage students in learning", are "skillful at keeping the lesson on track and accomplishing their objectives, while allowing students' questions and comments as springboards for discussions". "Student questioning is high".
Through this interaction with the students, teachers are also giving constant feedback. This helps the students to further their learning whilst feeling supported, encouraged and understood (this goes back to the positive classroom climate and to being able to "detect when students lose interest and are not understanding").
Expert teachers are "passionate about teaching and learning. They show more emotionality about their successes and failures in their work". And perhaps it is this passion which gives them the care for and belief in their students and means they aim higher. Hattie explains that "they aim for more than achievement goals and motivate their students to master rather than perform." Through this they "enhance students' self-concept and self-efficacy about learning, they set appropriate challenging tasks" (thereby keeping the students motivated) and "aim for both surface and deep outcomes". This seems to be achieved through a "balance between content-centred and student-centred instruction". "Students engage in challenging tasks to a great extent of the time" whereas usually the majority of classroom time is teacher-focused, with students only listening to what is being said. The high degree of student questioning clearly shows the teacher's confidence within the subject area - to be able to answer those questions - and perhaps also a more humane approach in that it is OK to not always know the answers, even as a teacher. Also, the fact that expert teachers seem to be "more adept at developing hypotheses about learning difficulties or instructional strategies", shows they are well informed about educational issues & students' learning abilities, as well as in their subject area.
It seems to me that the most important qualities of the expert teachers are their passion (about teaching and learning) and their caring, humane approach to students. These are the basic drives that lead to all the other qualities identified by John Hattie, and to expert teachers having "positive influences on students' achievement".
Question 2: Individual differences in classroom
The first step in catering for individual differences within the classroom, is by using a variety of ways to teach. This is to address multiple intelligences as explained by Howard Gardner, and therefore different ways of learning, by using visual, musical, linguistic etc. materials, and giving choice in the way research/projects are investigated and presented. Allowing time for class discussions where opinions may be expressed, issues discussed and hopefully resolved together, is also a way of giving everyone the opportunity to be proactive in the ongoings of the classroom, as well as to express their individuality and differences.
Teaching Emotional Intelligence is also a way of recognizing and addressing differences, teaching healthy relationship models, whilst still allowing students to stay on track with their work.
C)
Question 1: B.O.S.
On the Board of Studies website, the following are available for French taught in primary school:
- a 72 page-long syllabus that applies to all the levels from kindergarten to year 10,
- a 4 page guide for the syllabus
- a link to a "Syllabus Briefing Presentation"
Though not specifically for french, foundation statements are also available on the primary school page: k6.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/, see the "Primary Curriculum Foundation Statements" heading (first one, in orange). This information is needed when writing programs.
The "Official Notices" & "Special Needs Education" sections on the Home page of the Board of Studies website, are also good areas to look at, especially the first for any up-to-date information on syllabus changes.
Question 2: Lesson Planning
The importance of planning: well, there's nothing quite like entering a classroom not knowing what to teach!! It is important to know what the outcomes for the lesson are (to be looked up on the Board of Studies website), as well as how the content is going to be presented to the students. This needs to be done in a way that will motivate the students to engage in the lesson. For without student motivation, they will easily get distracted and this could be a recipe for disaster. By stating the outcomes clearly to the students, they will also know what is expected of them, giving them clearer direction as to what to do. By incorporating group activities, the students' drive for social interaction is acknowledged (Vygotsky) and using different media facilitates learning for different intelligences (Gardner).
Although it can be refreshing to be spontaneous within a lesson, it is important - as a general rule - to look at all aspects of learning and teaching psychologies.
What factors to consider in prior learning and background: It is important to look at the students' current understanding to be able to build on that knowledge, guiding them to the next step of understanding. This is called the "zone of proximal development" and is best put into practise by looking at the students' general interests. It is through these that it will be possible to motivate and engage students in the learning process.
Different strategies for gaining students' attention: This is, again, done by including students' interest in the way a lesson is presented. Bringing fun into the lesson is always an extra motivator for the students to participate, and by having some sort of an intrigue or a dilemma to be solved, the students' may become curious, arousing their desire to solve the mystery. Having a foundation of trust and respect with the students is also vital for students' to respond to the set tasks, as they will not want to engage with someone they dislike or mistrust.
Different assignment strategies that enable you to know/measure what students have learnt: By having a variety of assessment tasks and interactions and discussions within the classroom, it is possible to observe how much the information/task were learnt and integrated. This gives them the opportunity to use/show the learnt outcomes in a variety of activities, and to still ask questions if anything is misunderstood or unclear.
Wednesday, June 13, 2007
The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the 21st Century
The achievement of these common and agreed national goals entails a commitment to collaboration for the purposes of:
- further strengthening schools as learning communities where teachers, students and their families work in partnership with business, industry and the wider community
- enhancing the status and quality of the teaching profession
- continuing to develop curriculum and related systems of assessment, accreditation and credentialling that promote quality and are nationally recognised and valued
- increasing public confidence in school education through explicit and defensible standards that guide improvements in and students' levels of educational achievement and through and through which the
Goals:
| 1. | Schooling should develop fully the talents and capacities of all students. In particular, when students leave school, they should: | |
| 1.1 | have the capacity for, and skills in, analysis and problem solving and the ability to communicate ideas and information, to plan and organise activities, and to collaborate with others. | |
| 1.2 | have qualities of self-confidence, optimism, high self-esteem, and a commitment to personal excellence as a basis for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce members. | |
| 1.3 | have the capacity to exercise judgement and responsibility in matters of morality, ethics and social justice, and the capacity to make sense of their world, to think about how things got to be the way they are, to make rational and informed decisions about their own lives, and to accept responsibility for their own actions. | |
| 1.4 | be active and informed citizens with an understanding and appreciation of Australia’s system of government and civic life. | |
| 1.5 | have employment related skills and an understanding of the work environment, career options and pathways as a foundation for, and positive attitudes towards, vocational education and training, further education, employment and life-long learning. | |
| 1.6 | be confident, creative and productive users of new technologies, particularly information and communication technologies, and understand the impact of those technologies on society. | |
| 1.7 | have an understanding of, and concern for, stewardship of the natural environment, and the knowledge and skills to contribute to ecologically sustainable development. | |
| 1.8 | have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to establish and maintain a healthy lifestyle, and for the creative and satisfying use of leisure time. | |
| 2. | In terms of curriculum, students should have: | |
| 2.1 | attained high standards of knowledge, skills and understanding through a comprehensive and balanced curriculum in the compulsory years of schooling encompassing the agreed eight key learning areas:
and the interrelationships between them. | |
| 2.2 | attained the skills of numeracy and English literacy; such that, every student should be numerate, able to read, write, spell and communicate at an appropriate level. | |
| 2.3 | participated in programs of vocational learning during the compulsory years and have had access to vocational education and training programs as part of their senior secondary studies. | |
| 2.4 | participated in programs and activities which foster and develop enterprise skills, including those skills which will allow them maximum flexibility and adaptability in the future. | |
| 3. | Schooling should be socially just, so that: | |
| 3.1 | students’ outcomes from schooling are free from the effects of negative forms of discrimination based on sex, language, culture and ethnicity, religion or disability; and of differences arising from students’ socio-economic background or geographic location. | |
| 3.2 | the learning outcomes of educationally disadvantaged students improve and, over time, match those of other students. | |
| 3.3 | Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have equitable access to, and opportunities in, schooling so that their learning outcomes improve and, over time, match those of other students. | |
| 3.4 | all students understand and acknowledge the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures to Australian society and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. | |
| 3.5 | all students understand and acknowledge the value of cultural and linguistic diversity, and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, such diversity in the Australian community and internationally. | |
| 3.6 | all students have access to the high quality education necessary to enable the completion of school education to Year 12 or its vocational equivalent and that provides clear and recognised pathways to employment and further education and training. | |
Bloom's Taxonomy
Benjamin Bloom, 1913 - 1999:
6 levels of thinking and learning skills
Bloom’s taxonomy provides structure in which to categorize instructional objectives and instructional assessment. His taxonomy was designed to help teachers and Instructional Designers to classify instructional objectives and goals. The foundation of his taxonomy was based on the idea that not all learning objectives and outcomes are equal. For example, memorization of facts, while important, is not the same as the learned ability to analyze or evaluate. In the absence of a classification system (i.e., a taxonomy), teachers and Instructional Designers may choose, for example, to emphasize memorization of facts (which make for easier testing) than emphasizing other (and likely more important) learned capabilities.
A more in-depth look at the different sections..
* From Benjamin S. Bloom Taxonomy of educational objectives.
Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright (c) 1984 by Pearson Education.
This was revised by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) and changed into this:
A more in-depth look at the different sections..
Competence | Skills Demonstrated |
| Knowledge |
|
| Comprehension |
|
| Application |
|
| Analysis |
|
| Synthesis |
|
| Evaluation |
|
Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright (c) 1984 by Pearson Education.
This was revised by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) and changed into this:
Gardner's "Multiple Intelligences"
Howard E. Gardner, 1943 - :
Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, in entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.
taken from: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm
Some possible future candidates...
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value' (ibid.: 48).
Existential intelligence, a concern with 'ultimate issues', is, thus, the next possibility that Howard Gardner considers - and he argues that it 'scores reasonably well on the criteria' (ibid.: 64). However, empirical evidence is sparse - and although a ninth intelligence might be attractive, Howard Gardner is not disposed to add it to the list. 'I find the phenomenon perplexing enough and the distance from the other intelligences vast enough to dictate prudence - at least for now' (ibid.: 66).
moral intelligence: In his exploration, he begins by asking whether it is possible to delineate the 'moral domain'. He suggests that it is difficult to come to any consensual definition, but argues that it is possible to come to an understanding that takes exploration forward. Central to a moral domain, Howard Gardner suggests, 'is a concern with those rules, behaviours and attitudes that govern the sanctity of life - in particular, the sanctity of human life and, in many cases, the sanctity of any other living creatures and the world they inhabit' (ibid.: 70). If we accept the existence of a moral realm is it them possible to speak of moral intelligence? If it 'connotes the adoption of any specific moral code' then Howard Gardner does not find the term moral intelligence acceptable (ibid.: 75). Furthermore, he argues, researchers and writers have not as yet 'captured the essence of the moral domain as an instance of human intelligence' (ibid.: 76).
Project SUMIT (2000) uses the metaphor of Compass Points -'routes that educators using the theory have taken and which appear to benefit students'. They have identified the following markers that characterize schools with some success in implementing practices that attend to multiple intelligences theory.
Culture: support for diverse learners and hard work. Acting on a value system which maintains that diverse students can learn and succeed, that learning is exciting, and that hard work by teachers is necessary.
Readiness: awareness-building for implementing MI. Building staff awareness of MI and of the different ways that students learn.
Tool: MI is a means to foster high quality work. Using MI as a tool to promote high quality student work rather than using the theory as an end in and of itself.
Collaboration: informal and formal exchanges. Sharing ideas and constructive suggestions by the staff in formal and informal exchanges.
Choice: meaningful curriculum and assessment options. Embedding curriculum and assessment in activities that are valued both by students and the wider culture.
Arts. Employing the arts to develop children's skills and understanding within and across disciplines.
Friday, May 25, 2007
A Foundation for Education
Every revolutionary thought, is only so because it challenges the very foundations of our belief systems in a specific subject area. In the world of science, Kuhn (The Structure of Scientific Revolutions) explains that scientific revolutions come only after "long periods of tradition-bound, normal science, for frameworks must be lived with and explored before they can be broken".
As a general rule, these paradigms are a set of assumptions that are successful in explaining some aspect of the world. As such they need to be somehow provable or testable. For instance, someone may claim that aliens exist, but until there is something concrete that can be used to prove or disprove it, we cannot use it as an assumption to work with/from.
A good example of a paradigm shift however, is the belief that the earth is flat. This was a reasonable conclusion to come to at the time & the belief became so accepted, that it was very rarely questioned. In fact to this day - a whole 5 centuries after the idea of a round Earth was introduced - there are still people adamant that the earth is flat:
http://www.alaska.net/~clund/e_djublonskopf/Flatearthsociety.htm
A paradigm is therefore not always shared by everyone, but it reflects the most commonly accepted views.
(photo: www.zorbathegeek.net)Constructivist Education:
Up until recently, the main model for education, was based on behaviourist paradigms. The main aim was for the students to acquire information - with only a slow development of knowledge over time. This kind of education was centered around the teacher giving out information, to help build skills and values, while the students were to passively take it in.
Nowadays however, education works more from a constructivist point of view.
Following are some of the thinkers/psychologists, whose observations formed the main paradigms for constructivist education.
Nowadays however, education works more from a constructivist point of view.
Following are some of the thinkers/psychologists, whose observations formed the main paradigms for constructivist education.
Jean Piaget, 1896 - 1980:
"Children construct their own knowledge"
"Children think & learn differently from adults"
"Children go through different stages of cognitive development"
Piaget's 4 stages of Cognitive Development:
- Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) - The mental structures are mainly concerned with the mastery of concrete objects.
- Preoperational (2 years to 7 years) - The mastery of symbols takes place.
- Concrete operational (7 years to 11 years) - Children learn mastery of classes, relations, and numbers and how to reason.
- Formal operational (abstract thinking) (11 years and up) - The last stage deals with the mastery of thought.
Lev Vygotsky, 1896 - 1934:
Vygotsky & daughter (photo: perso.orange.fr/cryptozoo/dossiers/vygotsky.jpg)
Vygotsky & daughter (photo: perso.orange.fr/cryptozoo/"Children learn through social interaction"
ZPD: The Zone of Proximal Development. This is based on the idea that children can do and understand much more with adult guidance, than they can on their own (through bringing attention to certain ideas & objects, talking/sharing while playing, reading stories, asking questions etc). "In a wide range of ways, adults mediate the world for children and make it possible for them to get access to it."
Consciousness develops as a result of socialization. Young children's acting out & talking (out loud) of everyday events, later becomes their inner speech.
This "inner speech" continues to play an important role in regulating and controlling behaviour. Development can be seen as internalization through social interaction.
Jerome S. Bruner, 1915 - :
ZPD: The Zone of Proximal Development. This is based on the idea that children can do and understand much more with adult guidance, than they can on their own (through bringing attention to certain ideas & objects, talking/sharing while playing, reading stories, asking questions etc). "In a wide range of ways, adults mediate the world for children and make it possible for them to get access to it."
Consciousness develops as a result of socialization. Young children's acting out & talking (out loud) of everyday events, later becomes their inner speech.
This "inner speech" continues to play an important role in regulating and controlling behaviour. Development can be seen as internalization through social interaction.
Jerome S. Bruner, 1915 - :
- suggest that a learner (even of a very young age) is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately
- learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".
- encourage students to discover principles by themselves
Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
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